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It was once the most popular of anesthetics, mainly because the central nervous system is depressed by the vapor and allows the doctor to perform what would otherwise be painful surgical procedures. After James Young, an Edinburgh obstetrician was among the first to use Chloroform during childbirth and it was rapidly adopted for surgical procedures as well in Europe. It began to replace Ether as an anesthetic in the United States at the beginning of the twentieth century. Unfortunately, it was abandoned for Ether when it was discovered to have a high level of toxicity. It had the tendency to trigger fatal cardiac arrhythmia, a slang term being “sudden sniffer’s death.” For all that, Chloroform had the benefit of being able to be mixed with other anesthetic agents such as Ether to make C.E. mixture, or alcohol and Ether or make A.C.E. mixture. The dose that would trigger death (through respiratory or cardiac arrest) would be about ten milliliters (14.8 grams).
Nitrous Oxide, for its entirely serious name, has the funny nickname of ‘laughing gas.’ The formula is N20, which makes it a chemical compound. When at room temperature, it is colorless, nonflammable, and has a pleasant, slightly sweet odor and taste. It is used primarily in surgery and dentistry. It has an anesthetic and analgesic effect on the patient when used. It causes euphoria, which has led to its use as a dissociative hallucinogen on a recreational basis. In rocketry and motor racing it is used as an oxidizer to increase the power output of engines. Similar to molecular oxygen, at elevated temperatures Nitrous Oxide is a powerful oxidizer in its own right.
Thomas Beddoes and renowned engineer James Watt were the first ones who made the first important use of Nitrous Oxide possible. They collaborated and had published a book called “Considerations on the Medical Use and on the Production of Factitious Airs,” which was published in 1794. For two reasons this book was highly important. The first one was because it presented the medical theory (by Thomas Beddoes) that tuberculosis and other lung diseases could be treated by the inhalation of “Factitious Airs” and secondly, Watt had invented a newly designed, novel machine to produce “Factitious Airs” (Nitrous Oxide) with a “breathing apparatus” attached to inhale the gas.
Nitrous Oxide was first used as an anesthetic drug during the dental treatment of a human patient was done by dentist Horace Wells and was assisted by both John Mankey Riggs and Gardner Quincy Colton. It was a demonstration to show how Nitrous Oxide created insensitivity to pain during an oral surgical procedure, the operation being performed in December of 1844. Over the following weeks, with only two failed cases, Wells treated twelve to fifteen patients in Hartford. However Despite the convincing results reported to the Boston medical society in December 1844 the new method was not adopted by other dentists. The most likely reason is that in his first public demonstration in January 1845, at the first public demonstration in front of the medical faculty and students in Boston, the gas was improperly administered and the patient participating cried out in pain. This resulted in him being discredited in the medical community until the operation was performed on him, using the anesthetic.
General use didn’t begin until 1863, during which Gardner Qunicy Colton succeeded in using it in all of his “Colton Dental Association” dental clinics that he had established in New York City and New Haven. Over the three years that followed, Colton and his fellow dentists succeeded in administering Nitrous Oxide to over twenty-five thousand patients. Now with thousands of cases having demonstrated it’s safety and efficiency, nitrous Oxide began to be used as a matter of course in dentistry. It is mild enough to keep a patient conscious, but at the same time in a painless state, it remains as the most common form of anesthetic in dental surgery. However, because of its mildness, it is not used in hospitals, Ether and Chloroform based chemicals being the preferred method of anesthetic.
There are many that believe bikinis are the world’s greatest scientific breakthroughs. Many believe that Quaaludes should be brought back. Then there is the world wide favorite, beer, wine, and thermoses. Whoopie cushions, helmets that hold two beer cans, soda cans, (strangely) flying squirrels, the Spork, and reclining chairs. Then there’s toilet paper, sunglasses, the fork, air conditioner, paper, the refrigerator, the printing press, and electricity. All are lifestyle accoutrements that make living easier and more enjoyable. But in actuality, the truly brilliant discoveries transcend culture, lifestyle, and Preparation H (no matter how highly recommended). Below are listed and described inventions that have transcended cultural and national boundaries to literally remake the world.
Discovery #1: Anesthesia. One of the most famous people to use anesthesia, in the form of chloroform, was Queen Victoria. She began using it to end the pain of giving birth and highly recommended it. The first class of anesthetic is Ether. It is a class of organic compounds that contain an oxygen atom that is connected to either alkyl or aryl groups. It is the first to be used to alleviate pain so the doctors could perform surgical procedures with a minimum of discomfort to the patient. It was first discovered by Spanish chemist Raymundus Lullius in 1275 and given the name “sweet vitrol.” The synthesis of Ether was described by Valerius Cordus, a German scientist, in 1540. During the same period, an alchemist and Swiss physician Paracelsus discovered that it has hypnotic effects. German scientist W.G. Frobenius changed the name in 1730to Ether.
Ether was used initially in the treatment of scurvy, phthisis, bladder calculus, and catarrhal fever; not as an anesthetic. At the Beddoes’ Pneumatic Institute the treatments were performed and some time later in 1805, Ether was used to treat pulmonary inflammation by American physicians.Dr. Crawford Williamson Long, MD, is credited for using Ether as an anesthetic for the first time in a surgical procedure. He was twenty-seven years old and from Jefferson, Georgia. This surgical procedure was done to remove two tumors from the neck of a Mr. James Venable on March 30, 1842. As early as 1841 he had been using Ether for minor surgery and originally, during ‘Ether frolics,’ had learned about Ether, during his attendance at the University of Pennsylvania, attending medical school. Regrettably he didn’t publish his results up until 1848 in the Southern Medical and Surgical Journal, a substantial time after the demonstration performed after W.T.G. Morton’s demonstration of the anesthetizing effects of Ether. Morton’s use of Ether became a success with his dental practice and his local paper publicized his technique.
Finally, Ether was used in a successful demonstration as its use as an anesthetic. On October 16, 1846, at around 10:15 a.m., at the Massachusetts General Hospital, the Ether was administered to twenty year old Edward Gilbert Abbott. After being told that the patient was ready, Dr. Warren removed a congenital vascular malformation from the patient’s neck. The patient, after waking up, told the doctors that he did not experience pain at any time, even though he knew that the operation was occurring. Dr. Warren’s response to this statement was “Gentlemen, this is no humbug.” On November 18, 1846, details of the operation appeared in the Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, which was (the operation), a landmark in the history of anesthetic. The piece was written by Dr. Bigelow. Because of its high therapeutic index, Ether is still preferred as an anesthetic in developing nations.
Chloroform is another famous anesthetic. It was used by Queen Victoria, for the last pregnancies that she had. Chloroform is colorless, sweet smelling, and as a liquid, dense. It is considered a hazardous material and has a reputation of being a method of rendering someone unconscious, enabling someone to kidnap a person that it is used on. It was first reported and named in 1831 by French Chemist Eugene Souberian. He created it from acetone, ethanol, and chlorine bleach powder. Apparently American physician Samuel Guthrie considered the flavor of it to be delicious and prepared gallons of Chloroform.
Discovery #2: The vaccine. The word vaccine itself is derived from Edward Jenner’s use of the term cowpox, who adapted the term from the Latin word vaccinus, from vacca, which was used in 1796. It was administered to humans, which resulted in them being protected from smallpox. The vaccine functions as a biological preparation that creates immunity to a specific disease. It contains an agent that resembles a microorganism that causes disease and it manufactured from weakened or killed forms of the toxins or the microbe. It trains the body’s immune system to recognize the disease agent as a threat, foreign, and after destroying it, leaves a trace particle to ‘remind’ the immune system if it reappears. Then the immune system will be able to destroy the virus if it again reappears. Vaccines function in two ways, one being prophylactic and the other one being therapeutic. The prophylactic function works to ameliorate or prevent the effects of a future infection by any natural or ‘wild’ pathogen. Viruses such as influenza, cholera, bubonic plague, polio, Hepatitis A, and rabies have been vaccines that contain previously virulent, but killed micro-organisms that were destroyed with heat or chemicals. The several types of vaccine that are currently in use represent different strategies that are used to substantially reduce the risk of illness and at the same time working to retain the ability to produce a beneficial response in the immune system.
The first and most famous vaccine is that which was discovered to prevent smallpox. It was during the 1770′s that doctor Edward Jenner overheard a milkmaid boast that she would never have the almost always fatal smallpox, due to the fact that she had had been infected with the mild cowpox, which has always had a mild effect on humans. It was in the year 1796 that Jenner collected pus (from the pustule of cowpox) from the hand of a milkmaid and inoculated an eight year old boy with it, then six weeks later variolating the child’s arm with smallpox, which resulted in the boy avoiding the infection of smallpox. Additional experiments later demonstrated the success of the procedure in an infant. As a result, the procedure of inoculation was banned in 1840 and Jenner’s method was adopted as the standard. After Louis Pasteur successfully generalized Jenner’s method with his creation of a rabies vaccine (which is now described as an antitoxin), it was considered a matter of national prestige that vaccines were used and laws were passed making vaccination a requirement, by law.
There are vaccines that contain live, attenuated micro-organisms, which are referred to as attenuated vaccines. The majority of them are live viruses that have been cultivated and at the same time, their virulent properties have been disabled. Fundamentally similar, but less dangerous organisms were created to produce a wide immune response, which make some bacterial in nature. Their immunological response is proven to be more durable and is the preferred type to be used on healthy adults. Yellow fever, measles, rubella, mumps, and the bacterial infection Typhoid are examples of this method being performed. Developed by Calmette and Guerin, the live Mycobacterium tuberculosis vaccine that was developed is not made of a contagious strain, yet it contains a strain that has been modified, which is called “BCG” and is used to elicit immunogenicity to the vaccine. Vaccines that are made from inactivated toxic compounds, which cause illness than the micro-organism itself are called Toxoid vaccines. Among the toxoid based vaccines, two are tetanus and diphtheria. They are famous for their efficiency and at the same time, not all toxoids are known to be perfectly efficient or used solely for micro-organisms. The toxoid Crotalus Atrox is used as a vaccine for dogs against rattlesnake bites.
It was during the twentieth century that resulted in the introduction of several successful vaccines, among those vaccines against measles, mumps, rubella, and diphtheria. The polio vaccine is among the most spectacular developments in the 1950s and during the 1960s and 1970s the worldwide effort to eradicate smallpox was successful. Now they are taken for granted and among other major diseases, the only two important diseases that don’t have vaccines are malaria and HIV.
Discovery #3: Thermodynamics. Thermodynamics, as with all sciences, is concerned with the orderly, mathematical and logical modeling of the real world. The Greek name is therme-dynamis, ‘therme,’ which means ‘heat’ and ‘dynamis,’ which means ‘power.’ Thermodynamics is physics and chemistry based study, which centers upon the subject of energy conversion and interaction between heat and mechanical work. Microscopic variables include volume, pressure, and temperature. The field of statistical dynamics is the progenitor of thermodynamics. The need to increase the efficiency of steam engines is what caused the development of thermodynamics.
The laws of thermodynamics postulate that energy can be exchanged between physical systems as heat or work. This is the starting point of thermodynamic considerations. Also postulated is the existence of a quantity which is called entropy, which is defined for any system that is isolated as in thermodynamic equilibrium. Interactions between large ensembles of objects are studied and categorized in thermodynamics. What are central to this are the conceptual aspects of surroundings and system. Composed of particles, a system, whose average motions define its properties, are in turn in relation to one another through ‘equations of state.’ That those properties are able to be combined to express thermodynamic potentials and internal energy; which is useful to determine the conditions for spontaneous processes and equilibrium.
Using these tools, using thermodynamics will then describe how the systems respond to the changes of the surroundings. In science and engineering, these can be applied to engines, chemical reactions, phase transitions, black holes, and transport phenomena. For the fields of physics and chemistry, the results of thermodynamics are essential for chemistry, aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, chemical engineering, materials science, economics, and cell biology among many others. As a scientific discipline, the history of thermodynamics begins generally in 1650, which Otto von Guericke designed and built the first vacuum pump in the world and demonstrated it using the Magdeburg hemispheres.
Von Guericke was driven to create the vacuum with the intent of disproving the long held supposition by Aristotle that ‘nature abhors a vacuum.’ Shortly after, chemist and physicist Robert Boyle from Ireland learned of Guericke’s invention and in 1656, in a coordinated experiment built an air pump with English scientist Robert Hooke. When using this pump, Hooke and Boyle then noticed a correlation between temperature, pressure, and volume. After a while, Boyle’s Law was created, in which the law states that pressure and volume are inversely proportional. Based on these concepts, in 1679 Denis Papin, an associate of Boyle’s, built a bone digester, a closed vessel with a tightly fitting lid that confined steam until a high pressure was generated.
In later designs, a steam release valve was implemented and it kept the machine from exploding. When watching the valve rhythmically move up and down, Denis developed the idea of a cylinder and piston engine. However, he didn’t follow through with the idea of inventing the design. Based on Papin’s designs, the Engineer Thomas Savery built the first engine in 1697. While the engines in those times were crude and inefficient, it did end up attracting the attention of the leading scientists of the time. 127 years later their work led to who is known as the ‘father of thermodynamics’ Sadi Carnot, who published “Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire,” which is a discourse on power, engine efficiency, and heat. It outlined the fundamental energetic relations between Carnot cycle, motive power, and Carnot engine.
It sparked the start of the concept of thermodynamics as a modern science. In 1849 James Joule coined the term thermodynamics, a designate name of the relations between power and heat. As a functional term, in 1858 thermodynamics was used as a functional term in William Thomson’s paper called “An Account of Carnot’s Theory of the Motive Power of Heat.” The first textbook on thermodynamics was written by William Rankine in 1859. William Rankine was originally trained at the University of Glasgow as a physicist and civil mechanical engineering professor. In the early 1800s classical thermodynamics was the variation of the original thermodynamics, which was concerned with thermodynamic properties and states; such as work, heat, and energy, along with the laws of the laws of thermodynamics, all of which lacked an atomic interpretation. Out of the works of Rudolf Clausius, William Thomson, and William Rankine, in the 1850s the first and second laws of thermodynamics emerged simultaneously. Then four emerged. These four laws are the Zeroth, First Law, Second Law, and Third Law. The Zeroth law is based around thermal equilibrium, the First Law centers around conservation of energy, the Second Law about entropy, and the Third Law is about the absolute zero of temperature.
The Zeroth law states that” two systems in thermal equilibrium with a third are in thermal equilibrium with each other.” The First Law states that “the quantity of energy supplied to any isolated system in the form of heat is equal to the work done by the system plus the change in internal energy of the system.” The Second Law holds to the belief that “It is not possible to construct an engine whose sole effect is the extraction of heat from a heat source at single temperature and the conversion of this heat completely into mechanical work. Lastly, the Third Law states that “By no finite series of processes is the absolute zero attainable.”
Among others, an important thermodynamics concept is the ‘system.’ In this, everything in the universe is known in the surroundings except the system. It is something that is separated by the remainder of the universe, by a boundary, which may or may not be imaginary, but is limited by convention which delimits a finite volume. Potentially, the exchanges of matter or work or heat between the system and surroundings take place across this boundary. They are of the following four types: movable, imaginary, fixed, and real.
Discovery #4: Electricity. Understanding of electricity has been around long before there was any modern experimentation. Even in antiquity electrical phenomena has been studied, although fundamental advances had not been made until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In Ancient Egypt, texts date from 2750 BC shows awareness of shocks from a species called electric fish. They were referred to as “Thunderer of the Nile” and were considered the protectors of the other fish. Patients who suffered from headaches or gout were given instructions by their physicians to touch them and it was hoped that the powerful jolts would cure them. A thousand years later physicians (and naturalists as well) in ancient Greece, Rome, and Arab countries also recommended the use of electric fish. Pliny the Elder and Scribonius Largus, among several ancient writers, also attested to the (numbing) shocks delivered by torpedo rays and catfish and understood that their shocks were able to travel via conducting objects. It is to be attributed to the Arabs, who well before the fifteenth century had discovered the identity of lightening and applied the Arabic word Raad for lightening, which applied to the electric ray.
The first of a series of observations on static electricity was around six hundred BC among the ancient cultures around the Mediterranean. While observed, Thales of Miletos saw that when rods of amber were rubbed against a cat’s fur, it attracted lightweight things like feathers. As a result, he began to believe that it was friction that triggered the magnetic qualities of amber and it was a direct contrast to the mineral of magnetite, which interestingly didn’t need rubbing. Thales was wrong to believe, however, that attraction was due to a magnetic effect; even though later on in time science would end up proving a link between magnetism and electricity. In regards to a much more controversial theory, it has been theorized that the Parhtians may very well have had knowledge of electroplating, the theory of which was based on the Baghdad Battery, which was discovered in 1936. Uncertain as to whether or not the artifact was actually electrical in nature, it resembled a galvanic cell.
Electrical signals are a vital part of the biological processes of both human beings and animals. In the human body, signals of electricity travel, moving information throughout the nervous system and to and from the brain. Signals translate the information of what the ears hear, the eyes see, and what fingers feel to the brain. They control the signals that cause muscle movements, heartbeat, all taking signals from the brain. It is the fundamental feature of all matter in the universe, holding atoms and molecules all together with an electrical force. With magnetism, the structure of every object that exists is determined by electricity and causes electromagnetism, which is among the fundamental forces of the universe.
There are five distinct forms of electricity as defined by scientific usage. They are the following terms and definitions:
Definition #1) Electric Charge: A property of some subatomic particles, which determines their electromagnetic interactions. Electrically charged matter is influenced by and produces electromagnetic fields.
Definition#2) Electric Current: A movement or flow of electrically charged particles, typically measured in amperes.
Definition#3) Electric Field: An influence produced by an electric charge on other charges in its vicinity.
Definition#4) Electric Potential: The capacity of an electric field to do work on an electric charge, which is typically measured in volts.
Definition#5 Electromagnetism: A fundamental interaction between the magnetic field and the presence and motion of an electric charge.
Otto von Guericke, Stephen Gray, C. F. du Fay, and most famously Benjamin Franklin are the people who are part of the history of those who conducted further work on electricity in various experiments. Benjamin Franklin took the step of sacrificing his personal possessions, selling them to fund his work and various experiments. His most famous experiment (performed in June of 1752) is known to be when he attached a metal key to the end of a damp kite string and flew it in a sky in which a storm was developing. This resulted in a series of sparks conducting electricity from the key to the back of his hand, which displayed that lightening was electrical in nature.
Until the late nineteenth century the practical applications of electricity remained few and far between. By the late nineteenth century engineers at last were able to begin using it in residential and industrial areas. At that point industry and society was transformed by the rapid expansion of electrical technology. As a result of the extraordinary versatility of electricity, the application is limitless and has manifested itself into such fields as heating, communications, computation, lighting, and transport. The fundamental force behind any and all industrial society is electricity.
Discovery #5: Antibiotics. Prior to the beginning of the twentieth century most treatments were based on folklore medicine and in ancient Chinese medicine treatments for infection plants with antimicrobial properties were used. The same is true for the ancient Egyptians and molds were used by the ancient Greeks over 2,500 years ago. From earlier work based on the observation of antibiosis between microorganisms, it led to the discovery of natural antibiotics.
Stated French chemist and microbiologist Louis Pasteur; “if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hope for therapeutics. In Germany, a medical scientist by the name of Paul Erlich, in the late 1880s began the experimentation and testing of synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy and also started the story of antibiotic development. Many sceitnific endeavors were begun to understand the science of what caused bacterial infections and the isolation of natural antibiotics marked a significant scientific milestone in the development of antibiotics.
In 1942 Selman Waksman coined the phrase ‘antibiotic’ in 1942, which was used to describe any substances produced by a microorganism that is antagonistic to the development of other bacteria in high dilution. Fundamentally antibiotics are part of the expansive group of antimicrobial compounds which are used to treat infections caused by microorganisms which include protozoa and fungi. Originally this definition excludes substances that occur naturally, that kill bacteria but microorganisms to not produce (such as hydrogen peroxide or gastric juice). As well, it excludes antibacterial compounds that are synthetic such as the sulfonamides class of antibiotic drugs.
They are fundamentally chemicals, which are effective at only low concentrations and are part of the life process of one specific organism, that can stop the growth or kill a disease causing microbe, specifically germs. They eradicate bacterial infections by injuring or killing the bacteria, and the first and most famous antibiotic is penicillin, discovered in a mold culture. There are over one hundred different antibiotics and they only kill, specifically, bacterial infections, not viral ones. Also, fungal infections like ringworm are not curable with antibiotics. However, they have successfully cured life-threatening infections to minor discomforts.
The main classes of antibiotics are made up of the following classes:
Class One: The Penicllins such as penicillin and amoxicillin.
Class Two: Cephalosporins and cephalexin (commonly known as Keflex).
Class Three: Macrolides such as E-Mycin (erythromycin), Biaxin (clarithromycin), and lastly Zithromax (azithrmycin) are part of the third class of antibiotics.
Class Four: Fleuroquinolones such as Cipro (ciprofloxacin), Floxin (ofloxacin), and lastly in this class, Levaquin (levofloxacin).
Class Five: Class five drugs consist ofSulfonamides, such as Proloprim (trimethropin), and Bactrim (co-trimoxazole) among others.
Class Six: Class six antibiotic drugs are Tetracyclines that consist of Sumycin and Panmycin (tertracycline) and Vibramycin (doxycycline).
Class Seven: Consists of Aminoglycosides such as Garamycin (gentamicin) and Tobrex (tobramycin).
With each different infection an antibiotic is only effective with certain specific types. Doctors are best when comparing your needs with what antibiotic medicines are available. Allergies are also a factor, which might result in a patient having allergic reactions and eliminating a class of antibiotics from a treatment consideration. For example, a patient might have an allergy to penicillin and it will prevent amoxicillin from being prescribed as a result. Doctors have to choose antibiotic prescriptions that are supposed to treat the causes of the infection. Dosing schedule, cost of the medicine, and side effects are what is taken into account.
What have triggered immense concern in the medical community is the recent phenomena of antibiotic resistant strains because of improper administration, neglect of taking the required dosage, and people who take antibiotics for viral illnesses. Because of subtle differences among bacteria means that even though the proper prescriptions are given, some particles will be able to resist the attack of the antibiotic treatment. Additional problems in treatment occur when the ill patient’s own fundamental defenses cannot kill the bacteria on their own, allowing the bacteria to multiply. As a result, re-infection occurs with an anti-biotic resistant form and possibly be passed onto other people, spreading the infection.
As a result of these discoveries and developments, in the United States alone, fatalities caused by infections are now only 1/20th of what they were, before any antibiotic chemicals had been discovered, in 1900. The main causes of death in modern times are commonly called ‘the diseases of old age’ which are heart disease, cancer, and kidney disease. Before antibiotics, deaths from minor things like scratches were an everyday occurrence, but these days it would be considered a matter of surprise that such a thing would happen.
Thankfully, due to vaccines, there has been thesuccessful worldwide eradication of smallpox and diseases such as rubella,mumps, measles, polio, typhoid, and chickenpox are now no longer as common orthe threat to people as they used to be a hundred years ago. As long asvaccines continue to be administered to the majority of the population, diseaseoutbreaks can be avoided and managed with ease by the health authorities. Onlyfour countries have serious endemic cases of polio (,, , and ), which is only heldback the eradication date several times because of the difficulty of reachingall children and cultural misunderstandings.
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